SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Operationalization</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Operationalization</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

<p>In <a href="Research_design" title="Research design">research design</a>, especially in <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, <a href="Life_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sciences">life sciences</a> and <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <b>operationalization</b> or <b>operationalisation</b> is a process of defining the measurement of a <a href="Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> which is not directly <a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">measurable</a>, though its existence is inferred from other phenomena. Operationalization thus defines a <a href="Fuzzy_concept" title="Fuzzy concept">fuzzy concept</a> so as to make it clearly distinguishable, measurable, and understandable by <a href="Empirical_observation" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical observation">empirical observation</a>. In a broader sense, it defines the <a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">extension</a> of a <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concept</a>—describing what is and is not an instance of that concept. For example, in medicine, the phenomenon of <a href="Health" title="Health">health</a> might be operationalized by one or more indicators like <a href="Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> or <a href="Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a>. As another example, in visual processing the presence of a certain object in the environment could be inferred by measuring specific features of the light it reflects. In these examples, the phenomena are difficult to directly observe and measure because they are general/abstract (as in the example of health) or they are <a href="Latent_variables" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent variables">latent</a> (as in the example of the object). Operationalization helps infer the existence, and some elements of the extension, of the phenomena of interest by means of some observable and measurable effects they have.

</p><p>Sometimes multiple or competing alternative operationalizations for the same phenomenon are available. Repeating the analysis with one operationalization after the other can determine whether the results are affected by different operationalizations. This is called checking robustness. If the results are (substantially) unchanged, the results are said to be <i>robust against certain alternative operationalizations</i> of the checked variables.

</p><p>The concept of operationalization was first presented by the British physicist N. R. Campbell in his 'Physics: The Elements' (Cambridge, 1920). This concept spread to <a href="Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and <a href="Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. It remains in use in physics.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">Operational definition</a> and <a href="Theoretical_definition" title="Theoretical definition">Theoretical definition</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div>

<p>Operationalization is the scientific practice of <i><a href="Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">operational definition</a></i>, where even the most basic <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> are defined through the operations by which we measure them. The practice originated in the field of physics with the <a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> book <i><a href="The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927), by <a href="Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a>, whose methodological position is called "operationalism".<sup id="cite_ref-Moscati2018p140_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscati2018p140-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Bridgman wrote that in the <a href="Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> a concept like "duration" can split into multiple different concepts. In refining a physical theory, it may be discovered that what was thought to be one concept is actually two or more distinct concepts. Bridgman proposed that if only operationally defined concepts are used, this will never happen.

</p><p>Bridgman's theory was criticized because "length" is measured in various ways (e.g. it is impossible to use a <a href="Measuring_rod" title="Measuring rod">measuring rod</a> to measure the distance to the Moon), so "length" logically is not <i>one</i> concept but <i>many</i>, with some concepts requiring knowledge of <a href="Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>. Each concept is to be <i>defined by</i> the measuring operation used. So the criticism is that there are potentially infinite concepts, each defined by the methods that measured it, such as angle of sighting, day of the solar year, angular subtense of the moon, etc. which were gathered together, some astronomical observations taken over a period of thousands of years.

</p><p>In the 1930s, Harvard experimental psychologist <a href="Edwin_Boring" title="Edwin Boring">Edwin Boring</a> and students <a href="Stanley_Smith_Stevens" title="Stanley Smith Stevens">Stanley Smith Stevens</a> and <a href="Douglas_McGregor" title="Douglas McGregor">Douglas McGregor</a>, struggling with the methodological and epistemological problems of defining measurement of psychological phenomena, found a solution in reformulating psychological concepts operationally, as it had been proposed in the field of physics by Bridgman, their Harvard colleague. This resulted in a series of articles that were published by Stevens and McGregor from 1935, that were widely discussed in the field of psychology and led to the <i>Symposium on operationism</i> in 1945, to which Bridgman also contributed.<sup id="cite_ref-Moscati2018p140_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moscati2018p140-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operationalization">Operationalization</h3></div>

<p>The practical 'operational definition' is generally understood as relating to the <a href="Theoretical_definition" title="Theoretical definition">theoretical definitions</a> that describe reality through the use of <a href="Theory" title="Theory">theory</a>.

</p><p>The importance of careful operationalization can perhaps be more clearly seen in the development of <a href="Introduction_to_general_relativity" title="Introduction to general relativity">general relativity</a>. Einstein discovered that there were two operational definitions of "<a href="Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>" being used by scientists: <i>inertial</i>, defined by applying a force and observing the acceleration, from <a href="Newton's_second_law_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's second law of motion">Newton's second law of motion</a>; and <i>gravitational</i>, defined by putting the object on a scale or balance. Previously, no one had paid any attention to the different operations used because they always produced the same results,<sup id="cite_ref-TwoNewSciences_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TwoNewSciences-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the key insight of Einstein was to posit the <a href="Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">principle of equivalence</a> that the two operations would always produce the same result because they were equivalent at a deep level, and work out the implications of that assumption, which is the general theory of relativity. Thus, a breakthrough in science was achieved by disregarding different operational definitions of scientific measurements and realizing that they both described a single theoretical concept. Einstein's disagreement with the operationalist approach was criticized by Bridgman<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as follows: "Einstein did not carry over into his general relativity theory the lessons and insights he himself has taught us in his special theory." (p. 335).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_social_sciences">In the social sciences</h2></div>

<p>Operationalization is often used in the <a href="Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> as part of the <a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and <a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometrics</a>. Particular concerns about operationalization arise in cases that deal with complex concepts and complex stimuli (e.g., business research, software engineering) where unique threats to validity of operationalization are believed to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anger_example">Anger example</h3></div>

<p>For example, a researcher may wish to measure the concept "anger." Its presence, and the depth of the emotion, cannot be directly measured by an outside observer because anger is intangible. Rather, other measures are used by outside observers, such as facial expression, choice of vocabulary, loudness and tone of voice.

</p><p>If a researcher wants to measure the depth of "anger" in various persons, the most direct operation would be to ask them a question, such as "are you angry", or "how angry are you?". This operation is problematic, however, because it depends upon the definition of the individual. Some people might be subjected to a mild annoyance, and become slightly angry, but describe themselves as "extremely angry," whereas others might be subjected to a severe provocation, and become very angry, but describe themselves as "slightly angry." In addition, in many circumstances it is impractical to ask subjects whether they are angry.

</p><p>Since one of the measures of anger is loudness, the researcher can operationalize the concept of anger by measuring how loudly the subject speaks compared to his normal tone. However, this must assume that loudness is a uniform measure. Some might respond verbally while others might respond physically.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics_objections">Economics objections</h3></div>

<p>One of the main critics of operationalism in social science argues that "the original goal was to eliminate the subjective <a href="Mentalism_(psychology)" title="Mentalism (psychology)">mentalistic</a> concepts that had dominated earlier psychological theory and to replace them with a more operationally meaningful account of human behavior. But, as in economics, the supporters ultimately ended up "turning operationalism inside out".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Instead of replacing 'metaphysical' terms such as 'desire' and 'purpose'" they "used it to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions." Thus in psychology, as in economics, the initial, quite radical operationalist ideas eventually came to serve as little more than a "reassurance fetish"<sup id="cite_ref-Koch1992p275_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch1992p275-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for mainstream methodological practice."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tying_to_conceptual_frameworks">Tying to conceptual frameworks</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">Conceptual framework</a></div>

<p>The above discussion links operationalization to measurement of <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>. Many scholars have worked to operationalize concepts like <a href="Job_satisfaction" title="Job satisfaction">job satisfaction</a>, prejudice, anger etc. Scale and index construction are forms of operationalization. There is not one perfect way to operationalize. For example, in the United States the concept distance driven would be operationalized as miles, whereas <a href="Kilometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilometers">kilometers</a> would be used in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Operationalization is part of the <a href="Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the empirical research question of if job satisfaction influences job turnover. Both job satisfaction and job turnover need to be measured. The concepts and their relationship are important — operationalization occurs within a larger framework of concepts. When there is a large empirical research question or purpose the conceptual framework that organizes the response to the question must be operationalized before the data collection can begin. If a scholar constructs a questionnaire based on a conceptual framework, they have operationalized the framework. Most serious empirical research should involve operationalization that is transparent and linked to a conceptual framework.

</p><p>Another example, the <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> <i>Job satisfaction reduces job turnover</i> is one way to connect (or frame) two concepts – job satisfaction and job turnover. The process of moving from the idea <i>job satisfaction</i> to the set of questionnaire items that form a job satisfaction scale is operationalization. For example, it is possible to measure job satisfaction using only two simple questions: "All in all, I am satisfied with my job", and, "In general, I like my job."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Operationalization uses a different logic when testing a formal (quantitative) hypothesis and testing <a href="Working_hypothesis" title="Working hypothesis">working hypothesis</a> (qualitative). For formal hypotheses the <a href="Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> are represented empirically (or operationalized) as numeric variables and tested using <a href="Inferential_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferential statistics">inferential statistics</a>. Working hypotheses (particularly in the social and administrative sciences), however, are tested through evidence collection and the assessment of the evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evidence is generally collected within the context of a <a href="Case_study" title="Case study">case study</a>. The researcher asks if the evidence is sufficient to "support" the working hypothesis. Formal operationalization would specify the kinds of evidence needed to support the hypothesis as well as evidence which would "fail" to support it.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robert Yin recommends developing a case study protocol as a way to specify the kinds of evidence needed during the data collection phases. He identifies six sources of evidence: documentation; archival records; <a href="Interviews" class="mw-redirect" title="Interviews">interviews</a>; direct observations; <a href="Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> and physical or <a href="Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">cultural artifacts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the field of public administration, <a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Shields</a> and Tajalli (2006) have identified five kinds of conceptual frameworks (<a href="Working_hypothesis" title="Working hypothesis">working hypothesis</a>, descriptive categories, practical ideal type, operations research, and formal <a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>). They explain and illustrate how each of these conceptual frameworks can be operationalized. They also show how to make conceptualization and operationalization more concrete by demonstrating how to form conceptual framework tables that are tied to the literature and operationalization tables that lay out the specifics of how to operationalize the conceptual framework (measure the concepts).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Proxy_(statistics)" title="Proxy (statistics)">Proxy (statistics)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-Damasio,_Feeling-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Damasio,_Feeling_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="Antonio_Damasio" title="Antonio Damasio">Antonio Damasio</a> (1999) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/faculty/pylyshyn/Consciousness_2014/Emotions/10-Damasio-OCR.pdf">The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness</a></i> ch.2, p.55</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Inguane, R., Gallego-Ayala, J., & Juízo, D. (2013). Decentralized water resources management in Mozambique: challenges of implementation at river basin level. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, R. (2007). Statistical structures underlying quantum mechanics and social science. International Journal of Theoretical Physics, 46(8), 2026-2045.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atmanspacher, H. (1994). Is the ontic/epistemic distinction sufficient to describe quantum systems exhaustively?. In Symposium on the Foundations of Modern Physics (pp. 15-32).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Svozil, K. (1990). The quantum coin toss-testing microphysical undecidability. Physics Letters A, 143(9), 433-437.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Downing, K. L. (1992). A qualitative teleological approach to cardiovascular physiology. Recent advances in qualitative physics, 329.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martens, H., & de Muynck, W. M. (1990). The inaccuracy principle. Foundations of physics, 20(4), 357-380.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Moscati2018p140-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moscati2018p140_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moscati2018p140_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Moscati, I (2018) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dflyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">Measuring Utility: From the Marginal Revolution to Behavioral Economics</a></i>, pp.140-141</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The operationalist thesis—which can be considered a variation on the <a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> theme—was that all theoretical terms must be defined via the operations by which one measured them; see Crowther-Heyck, Hunter (2005), <i>Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America</i>, JHU Press, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LV1rnS9NBjkC&pg=PA65">p. 65</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TwoNewSciences-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TwoNewSciences_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> (1638) <i><a href="Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i>, particularly the <a href="Law_of_falling_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of falling bodies">Law of falling bodies</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P.W. Bridgman, <i>Einstein's Theories and the Operational Point of View</i>, in: P.A. Schilpp, ed., <i>Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist</i>, Open Court, La Salle, Ill., Cambridge University Press, 1982, Vol. 2, p. 335–354.</span>

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFLukyanenkoEvermannParsons2014" class="citation conference cs1">Lukyanenko, Roman; Evermann, Joerg; Parsons, Jeffrey (2014). "Instantiation Validity in IS Design Research". In Tremblay, Monica Chiarini; VanderMeer, Debra E.; Rothenberger, Marcus A.; Gupta, Ashish; Yoon, Victoria Y. (eds.). <i>Advancing the Impact of Design Science: Moving from Theory to Practice - 9th International Conference, DESRIST 2014, Miami, FL, USA, May 22-24, 2014. Proceedings</i>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 8463. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">321–</span>328. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-06701-8_22">10.1007/978-3-319-06701-8_22</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-06700-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green 2001 <i>Operationism Again: What Did Bridgman Say? What Did Bridgman Need?</i> in Theory and Psychology 11 (2001) p.49</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Koch1992p275-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koch1992p275_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koch, Sigmund (1992) <i>Psychology’s Bridgman vs. Bridgman’s Bridgman: An Essay in Reconstruction.</i>, in <i>Theory and Psychology</i> vol. 2 no. 3 (1992) p.275</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wade Hands (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/112364/on_operationalisms_and_economics/">"On operationalisms and economics" (December 2004)</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://store.newforums.com/A-Playbook-for-Research-Methods-SEB005.htm"><i>A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management</i></a>. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. For a detailed discussion of operationalization extending the example above see Shields & Rangarajan pp. 32 to 41.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://store.newforums.com/A-Playbook-for-Research-Methods-SEB005.htm"><i>A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management</i></a>. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFeeley2000" class="citation journal cs1">Feeley, Thomas Hugh (2000-08-01). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00909880009365574">"Testing a communication network model of employee turnover based on centrality"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Applied Communication Research</i>. <b>28</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">262–</span>277. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00909880009365574">10.1080/00909880009365574</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-9882">0090-9882</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145477053">145477053</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> and Nandhini Rangarajan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://store.newforums.com/A-Playbook-for-Research-Methods-SEB005.htm"><i>A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management</i></a>. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. pp. 109-158.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> and Nandhini Rangarajan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://store.newforums.com/A-Playbook-for-Research-Methods-SEB005.htm"><i>A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management</i></a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Yin. 1994. <i>Case Study Research: Design and Methods.</i> (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 63–80.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShieldsHassan_Tajalli2006" class="citation journal cs1">Shields, Patricia; Hassan Tajalli (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecommons.txstate.edu/polsfacp/39/">"Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link to successful Student Scholarship"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Affairs Education</i>. <b>12</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">313–</span>334. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15236803.2006.12001438">10.1080/15236803.2006.12001438</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141201197">141201197</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> and Nandhini Rangarajan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://store.newforums.com/A-Playbook-for-Research-Methods-SEB005.htm"><i>A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management</i></a>. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBridgman1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Percy_Bridgman" class="mw-redirect" title="Percy Bridgman">Bridgman, P.W.</a> (1927). "<a href="The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a>".</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></li>

<li><a href="A._Cornelius_Benjamin" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Cornelius Benjamin">A. Cornelius Benjamin</a> (1955) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b563950&view=1up&seq=7&skin=2021">Operationism</a> via <a href="HathiTrust" title="HathiTrust">HathiTrust</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism47" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Positivism47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li>

<li><a href="Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li>

<li><a href="Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>

<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>

<li><a href="Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br>in the <a href="History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li>

<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li>

<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li>

<li><a href="Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li>

<li><a href="Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li>

<li><i><a href="A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li>

<li><i><a href="Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li>

<li><i><a href="Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li>

<li><i><a href="Language%2C_Truth%2C_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li>

<li><a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li>

<li><i><a href="History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li>

<li><i><a href="World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li>

<li><i><a href="Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li>

<li><i><a href="Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li>

<li><i><a href="Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li>

<li><i><a href="One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li>

<li><i><a href="Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li>

<li><a href="Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li>

<li><a href="Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li>

<li><a href="Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q286017#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata995" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q286017#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata995" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1046386">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4172618-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85095017">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13182156s">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13182156s">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548425705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/192ce3e9-31a4-4f7d-b482-c8224291e788">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-21" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Operationalization&oldid=1301681315">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>